Literature review

by Kenya Thompson, Research Assistant
PhD Student, Department of Politics, York University

Critical thinking is understood as a cognitive process by which individuals engage in higher-order thinking or problem-solving (Baker, 1981; Boyd et al., 2015). Thinking critically means employing reason and logic to assess and analyze relevant information and knowledge (Camp & Schnader, 2010). The objective of critical thinking is to gain the proficiencies necessary to form well-reasoned arguments or reach a sound conclusion on any given issue or subject of inquiry (Burrell, 2014; Camp & Schnader, 2010; Kim et al., 2013). Sociology researchers have described critical thinking as the capacity to engage with one’s “sociological imagination” to form sound arguments through the scrutiny of empirical evidence (Green & Klug, 1990). A complex, multi-layered process, the enhancement of critical thinking skills is a complex, multi-layered process involving developing a broad set of proficiencies.

Research indicates that there is a strong correlation between debates and the development of critical thinking skills (Bellon, 2000; DeClerk et al., 2020; Freeley, 1996; Goodwin, 2003; Walker & Warhurst, 2000). As an instructional strategy, debates compel students to apply and evaluate knowledge learned in the classroom setting, and relevant to their field of study and practice, and consider it further in a critical and strategic manner (DeClerk et al., 2020; Mitchell, 2019; Wolla, 2018). There is evidence that the preparation and performance of debates in diverse disciplines, including social sciences, enhance several key competencies for students, especially critical thinking (Freeley, 1996).

Preparing for an in-class debate requires students to conduct research, assess the credibility of found source materials, and engage in problem definition to determine the relevance of points to use in debate (Boyd et al., 2015). This work occurs regardless of an individual or collaborative assessment design. Students must then analyze, evaluate, and synthesize the products of their research to construct strong, successful arguments (Boyd et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2007; Kim et al., 2013). Debates also offer an opportunity for students to clarify their own views on controversial or devisive issues (Boyd et al., 2015). When assigned positions that oppose their own personal beliefs, students are challenged to argue a position that may differ significantly from their own and reflect upon different perspectives, which can reduce biases (Berdine, 1987; Schroeder & Ebert, 1983; Tumposky, 2004; Wolla, 2018). Rubin et al. (2008) posited that being assigned positions contrary to their personal beliefs resulted in the most substantial learning opportunities for students (DeClerk et al., 2020). Unable to draw upon their prior knowledge,  personal opinion or  emotion to convey their argument, students are compelled to rely on evidence-based literature and data acquired through research to support their arguments (Mitchell, 2019; Wolla, 2018).

The performance of debate in a classroom setting promotes  students’ public speaking and active listening skills. Live debate requires differentiating between subjective and evidence-based arugments and considering diverse perspectives (Darby M, 2007; Wolla, 2018). Reflexivity and open-mindedness are practiced as students anticipate the other side’s argument and counter it accordingly (Camp & Schnader, 2010; Tumposky, 2004). When conducted as a group activity, debates provide the opportunity to develop leadership, communication, and teamwork skills as students collaboratively decide upon the design, development, and execution of debate, take on leadership roles, assign tasks and responsibilities, and assess team members’ debate performance (Boyd et al., 2015; Huff, 2014). For these reaons, debates are well-suited to fostering critical thinking skills in large classes (Green & Klug, 1990).

Though challenging, students generally respond positively to classroom debate (Darby M, 2007; Wolla, 2018). In a study of the development of critical thinking skills across different instructional strategies, Richardson and Ice (2010) found that, although students indicated a preference for open-ended discussion as opposed to debate, engaging in debate challenges students’ meta-cognition strengths and abilities, resulting in higher critical thinking levels. Students across several studies report discomfort and challenges arguing against their own views, including concern that their fellow classmates will assume they hold the position they are arguing in a classroom debate. However, several students described the experience of being pushed  out of their comfort zone as positive bychallenging them to thoughtfully consider perspectives contrary to their own. Further, this experience yielded greater understanding of others’ experiences (DeClerk et al., 2020; Green & Klug, 1990; Mitchell, 2019). Debates have also shown to promote open mindedness, broadening students’ “intellectual horizons” as they consider and anticipate responding to other students’ positions (Berdine, 1987; Camp & Schnader, 2010; Wolla, 2018).

The development of critical thinking skills through debate have been assessed in several ways. Individual and group interviews with students, surveys, self-assessments, and reflection assignments have been used to capture students’ experiences of debate, and track progress achieved as they progress along continuum of critical thinking (Camp & Schnader, 2010; Goodwin, 2003).

Research indicates that participating in classroom debates enhances skills fundamental to a post-secondary education, and support lifelong learning (Hirsch, 2017; Wolla, 2018). This is key, as Camp & Schnader (2010) identify critical thinking as developing over an extended duration, as students encounter numerous critical thinking tasks; classroom debates can thus be understood as a first step in a multi-stage process in the cultivation of critical thinking skills. DeClerk et al. (2020) found that after engaging in classroom debate a small cohort of nursing students demonstrated statistically signfiicant improvement in a number of skills associated with critical thinking, and the ability to critically consider best practice beyond the classroom.

Debate Modality

In addition to the literature addressing the merits of in-person debate for critical thinking, a growing body of literature addresses how debates improve these skills when conducted using online modalities. A modality can be defined as a form of doing, experiencing, and interacting with others. Teaching and learning modalities include in-person and online learning (originally called distance education); synchronous and asynchronous; blended (with in-person and online components); and hybrid (with students participating both online and in-person) (Verde & Valero, 2021).

Research indicates that the method of instruction, not the modality, is critical to meeting learning outcomes (Clark, 1994). Online courses have shown to be just as effective as in-person instruction in achieving debate learning outcomes, as long as online activities are appropriate to the instructional task, and include peer interaction as well as active engagement and feedback from instructors (Hamzaee, 2005). Richardson & Ice (2010) found that to develop critical thinking skills in online debates, instructors must provide sufficient orientation to foster students’ confidence and comfort levels with the modality.

Accordingly, critical thinking skills can be enhanced by engaging in online debate. Though there is a dearth of literature comparing debate modalities, conducting debate in an online setting has generally shown to provide opportunities not available in a traditional debate in the classroom. The online modality is found to foster the identification of knowledge gaps, and promote the construction of knowledge by exposing students to a diversity of perspectives (Land et al., 2007; Richardson & Ice, 2010). Many researchers have found that dialogue among students through online modalitiess prove to be more thoughtful and reasoned than those produced in traditional classroom debates (Weeks, 2013); this can be attributed to the time allowed to produce a coherent response online. Online debates have also shown to increase student engagement, as shy or timid students might feel more comfortable participating in an online rather than an in-person debate (Camp & Schnader, 2010; Weeks, 2013).

However, in one study, while participation in online debate resulted it the acquisition of critical thinking skills, it did not correlate to strong scores on post-debate written assignments (Scott, 2008). Weeks (2013) found the same in a study comparing two cohorts of students engaged in online and in-person classroom debate. Although students who participated online engaged in more substantive debates, students who debated in the classroom produced stronger writing assignments, earning higher grades on their assignments, and demonstrating more advanced critical thinking.

There is a dearth of literature on the value of a multi-modal approach employing both online and in-person mode. Richardson and Ice (2010) suggested that online discussions could be used in concert with classroom debate, to initiate or support the enrichment of critical thinking skills throughout the learning or scaffolding process. Trindade et. al. (2021) similarly posited that employing online and in-person teaching methods concurrently can produce a more robust learning opprtunity for students, resulting in a more comprehensive understanding of topics and issues. Our study addresses this research gap. We build upon existing research by investigating the role of multimodalities: whether engaging in both online and in-person debate can strengthen critical thinking skills of first year sociology students.

Bibliography

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Bellon, J. (2000). A Research-Based Justification for Debate Across the Curriculum. Argumentation and Advocacy, 36(3), 161–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00028533.2000.11951646

Berdine, R. (1987). Increasing Student Involvement in the Learning Process through Debate on Controversial Topics. Journal of Marketing Education, 9(3), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/027347538700900303

Boyd, M. R., Baliko, B., & Polyakova-Norwood, V. (2015). Using Debates to Teach Evidence-Based Practice in Large Online Courses. Journal of Nursing Education, 54(10), 578–582. CINAHL Complete. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20150916-06

Burrell, L. A. (2014). Integrating critical thinking strategies into nursing curricula. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 9(2), 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2013.12.005

Camp, J. M., & Schnader, A. L. (2010). Using Debate to Enhance Critical Thinking in the Accounting Classroom: The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and U.S. Tax Policy. Issues in Accounting Education, 25(4), 655–675. Business Source Complete. https://doi.org/10.2308/iace.2010.25.4.655

Darby M. (2007). Debate: A teaching-learning strategy for developing competence in communication and critical thinking. Journal of Dental Hygiene, 81(4), 78–78.

DeClerk, L., LaBorde, P., & Smith-Olinde, L. (2020). Debate as a learning tool in an online environment. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 32(6), 461–468. https://doi.org/10.1097/JXX.0000000000000265

Freeley, A. J. (1996). Argumentation and debate: Critical thinking for reasoned decision making (9th ed). Wadsworth Pub. Co.

Goodwin, J. (2003). Students’ Perspectives on Debate Exercises in Content Area Classes. Communication Education, 52(2), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520302466

Green, C. S., & Klug, H. G. (1990). Teaching Critical Thinking and Writing through Debates: An Experimental Evaluation. Teaching Sociology, 18(4), 462–471. https://doi.org/10.2307/1317631

Hamzaee, R. G. (2005). A Survey and a Theoretical Model of Distance Education Programs. International Advances in Economic Research, 11(2), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11294-005-3017-6

Hirsch, B. J. (2017). Wanted: Soft skills for today’s jobs. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(5), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721717690359

Huff, P. L. (2014). The Goal Project: A Group Assignment to Encourage Creative Thinking, Leadership Abilities and Communication Skills. Accounting Education, 23(6), 582–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2014.974198

Kennedy, R. (2007). In-Class Debates: Fertile Ground for Active Learning and the Cultivation of Critical Thinking and Oral Communication Skills. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 19(2), 183–190.

Kim, K., Sharma, P., Land, S. M., & Furlong, K. P. (2013). Effects of Active Learning on Enhancing Student Critical Thinking in an Undergraduate General Science Course. Innovative Higher Education, 38(3), 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-012-9236-x

Land, S. M., Choi, I., & Ge, X. (2007). Scaffolding online discussions to promote reflection and revision of understanding. International Journal of Instructional Media, 34(4), 409–419.

Mitchell, E. T. (2019). Using Debate in an Online Asynchronous Social Policy Course. Online Learning, 23(3). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i3.2050

Richardson, J. C., & Ice, P. (2010). Investigating students’ level of critical thinking across instructional strategies in online discussions. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(1–2), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.009

Rubin, R. W., Weyant, R. J., & Trovato, C. A. (2008). Utilizing Debates as an Instructional Tool for Dental Students. Journal of Dental Education, 72(3), 282–287. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.0022-0337.2008.72.3.tb04494.x

Schroeder, H., & Ebert, D. G. (1983). Debates as a Business and Society Teaching Technique. The Journal of Business Education, 58(7), 266–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219444.1983.10534907

Scott, S. (2008). Perceptions of Students’ Learning Critical Thinking through Debate in a Technology Classroom: A Case Study. The Journal of Technology Studies, 34(1), 39–44.

Trindade, M. A. M. (2021). What Students Can Tell Us: Using Argumentation and Debate in e-learning times? 2021 16th International Conference on Computer Science & Education (ICCSE), Computer Science & Education (ICCSE), 2021 16th International Conference On, 76–80. IEEE Xplore Digital Library. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCSE51940.2021.9569483

Tumposky, N. R. (2004). The Debate Debate. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 78(2), 52–56. https://doi.org/10.3200/TCHS.78.2.52-56

Verde, A., & Valero, J. M. (2021). Teaching and Learning Modalities in Higher Education During the Pandemic: Responses to Coronavirus Disease 2019 From Spain. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 648592. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648592

Walker, M., & Warhurst, C. (2000). “In Most Classes You Sit Around Very Quietly at a Table and get Lectured at…”: Debates, assessment and student learning. Teaching in Higher Education, 5(1), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/135625100114948

Weeks, P. P. (2013). Examining Online Debate and Discussion. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 17(1 (spring)), 55–59.

Wolla, S. A. (2018). Yours, Mine, and the Truth: Using a Structured Minimum Wage Debate in the Economics Classroom. American Economist, 63(2), 245–259. EconLit.

A special thank you to Viduruvani Ihalagama,  Research Assistant and MEd Candidate, TRU, for assisting with the literature review.